Setiap hari kita bergumul dengan wacana. Menurut Yuwono (2005: 92) wacana adalah bangun yang terbentuk dari hubungan semantis antarsatuan bahasa secara padu dan terikat pada konteks. Ketika sedang membaca berita, misalnya, kita mengonsumsi wacana informasional. Sewaktu terpikat dengan iklan suatu jenama, kita disihir oleh wacana persuasif. Bahkan, saat sedang bercakap-cakap dengan manusia lain, kita menerapkan wacana dialog. Tanpa disadari, kehidupan kita diisi oleh wacana.
Perlu digarisbawahi bahwa wacana terikat pada konteks. Tanpa adanya konteks, wacana tidak dapat dipahami. Contohnya, kita tidak dapat memahami itu dalam kalimat Adi sedang mengambil itu. Kita lantas mencari-cari, apa yang dimaksud dengan itu dan apa yang sedang Adi ambil? Dengan demikian, dalam sebuah wacana, kita membutuhkan unsur-unsur bahasa yang saling merujuk dan berkaitan secara semantis. Hal itu dinamakan kohesi.
Ada dua macam kohesi dalam wacana, yakni kohesi gramatikal dan kohesi leksikal. Pada pembahasan kali ini, saya akan membedah kohesi gramatikal terlebih dahulu. Kohesi gramatikal adalah relasi semantis antarunsur bahasa yang ditandai oleh alat gramatikal, yakni alat bahasa yang berkaitan dengan tata bahasa. Kohesi gramatikal dapat berwujud referensi, substitusi, elipsis, dan konjungsi.
Referensi
Kohesi gramatikal yang berwujud referensi menekankan hubungan antara kata dan objeknya. Objek yang berada di luar teks mengindikasikan adanya referensi eksoforis, sedangkan objek yang berada di dalam teks menandakan adanya referensi endoforis. Perhatikan contoh di bawah ini.
a. Mereka belum makan.
b. Adi sedang mengambil itu.
Pada dua contoh di atas, mereka, Adi, dan itu merupakan tiga kata yang mengacu pada objek di luar teks. Terang saja, kita tidak mengenal siapa itu mereka dan Adi. Kita pun tidak mengetahui sesuatu yang Adi ambil.
a. Bapak dan Ibu kelaparan. Mereka belum makan.
b. Adi sedang mengambil itu, botol minum.
Pada contoh kali ini, muncul dua subjek baru, yaitu Bapak dan Ibu. Keduanya juga memarkahi referensi eksoforis. Namun, berkat kemunculannya, kata mereka pada kalimat berikutnya mendapatkan acuan yang jelas. Kata mereka menandakan referensi endoforis sebagaimana botol minum yang mengacu pada itu dalam contoh b.
Meskipun sama-sama memiliki penanda referensi endoforis, dua contoh terakhir memiliki perbedaan. Kata mereka mengacu pada bapak dan ibu yang terletak pada kalimat sebelumnya. Referensi endoforis yang mengacu balik atau ke belakang disebut sebagai referensi endoforis anafora. Sebaliknya, itu mengacu pada botol minum yang terletak di sebelah kanan. Referensi endoforis yang mengacu ke depan disebut sebagai referensi endoforis katafora.
Referensi, menurut tipe objeknya, dapat digolongkan menjadi referensi personal (ditandai dengan pronomina persona seperti saya atau kamu), referensi demonstratif (ditandai dengan demonstrativa itu, ini, sana, sini), dan referensi komparatif (ditandai dengan sama, serupa, seperti, serta berbeda).
Substitusi
Substitusi umum digunakan untuk menghindari repetisi. Contoh kata dan frasa yang mewakili kohesi gramatikal substitusi adalah ini, itu, demikian, tersebut, di atas, di bawah, berikut, dll. Berarti, pada contoh sebelumnya, kata itu dan mereka juga dapat berdiri sebagai penanda substitusi. Lebih tepatnya, substitusi nominal.
Di luar itu, substitusi juga dapat diterapkan secara verbal dan klausal.
a. Mereka bekerja keras. Kami pun.
b. Manchester United sedang berada di pucuk klasemen. Saya tahu itu.
Pada contoh a, pun menggantikan frasa verbal bekerja keras, sedangkan itu pada contoh b menggantikan klausa Manchester United sedang berada di pucuk klasemen. Apabila diteliti lebih jauh, substitusi memiliki pola yang mirip dengan referensi endoforis. Cutting dalam Pragmatics and Discourse: A Resource Book for Students (2002: 11) pun juga menuliskan bahwa “Substitution tends to be endophoric: the noun phrase being substituted is usually in the text.”
Elipsis
Elipsis sering kali disebut juga pelesapan, yakni penghilangan kata-kata yang dapat dimunculkan kembali dalam suatu pemahaman. Perhatikan contoh berikut.
a. Danu sakit sehingga [ia] tidak masuk sekolah.
b. Ketika [saya] sedang sedih, saya akan menangis berlarut-larut.
Kata di dalam kurung siku merupakan kata yang dilesapkan. Meskipun tidak dimunculkan, makna wacana tidak berubah lewat penyajian yang lebih ringkas.
Konjungsi
Konjungsi atau kata hubung adalah kohesi gramatikal yang terakhir. Sebagai alat kohesi, konjungsi yang menghubungkan gagasan-gagasan di dalam sebuah kalimat disebut konjungsi intrakalimat. Sementara itu, konjungsi antarkalimat adalah alat kohesi yang menghubungkan gagasan-gagasan dalam kalimat yang berbeda.
a. Bapak dan Ibu kelaparan, tetapi mereka tidak mau makan.
b. Bapak dan Ibu kelaparan, tetapi mereka tidak mau makan. Oleh karena itu, pada malam hari, keduanya sakit mag.
Pada contoh pertama, tetapi menjadi konjungsi intrakalimat. Sementara, oleh karena itu menjadi konjungsi antarkalimat.
Di atas tadi merupakan penjelasan mengenai alat-alat kohesi gramatikal yang dapat membuat wacana menjadi padu. Pada tulisan berikutnya, saya akan menjelaskan jenis kohesi lainnya, yakni kohesi leksikal.
Rujukan:
- Cutting, Joan. 2002. Pragmatics and Discourse: A Resource Book for Students. London: Routledge.
- Kushartanti, dkk. (ed). 2005. Pesona Bahasa: Langkah Awal Memahami Linguistik. Jakarta: Penerbit PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama.
Penulis: Yudhistira
Penyunting: Ivan Lanin

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Konjungsi sama konjugasi apa perbedaan nya???
Konjungsi sama konjugasi apa perbedaan nya?